Madness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Madness - Essay ExampleFinally after years of hospital visits, therapy, and very much of different types of medicine, Mayra found a routine that has worked for her so far.Like Mayra has proven and other people with Bipolar disorder know, this illness has no cure. It is a lifelong process of taking medicines to alleviate the symptoms of the disorder. Over the years the more doctors have learned about being Bipolar. When Mayra was first diagnosed, she got a generic Bipolar diagnosis. presently there is two different types of Bipolar Bipolar I and Bipolar II. It was once thought that a person had long manic phases and long down in the mouth phases, but as Mayra has shown her moods changed daily. Today doctors know more, but more research and study is needed.Like many people with Bipolar disorder, Mayra self medicated since her adolescence. Alcohol to receive down or take the edge off her manic phases, pills to chase away the blues. After being hospitalized for her eating disorder, M ayra stopped taking pills. However her intoxicant intake increased for years. She was also a cutter. After an almost near death experience after slitting her veins, she stopped regular cutting.Mayra did not receive divine service sooner than her thirties, even though diagnosed with Bipolar ten years earlier, because she did not take the disease seriously. Finally Mayra had to face the fact that she was never going to be normal, but with medicine could live with the disease. Once she stopped drinking, she still did not take the disease seriously. Only after addressing her illness, did Mayra find a tenuous parallelism with medicine and therapy.wards, medicine, detox, AA, and therapy. At first diagnosed with anorexia/bulimia, Mayra was hospitalized for that. The goal for treating anorexia/bulimia is to get a patient to eat. The weight Mayra gained or lost was more important than her mental state. They sort her with other anorexia/bulimia patients that were depressed. The medicine P rozac might have helped Mayra with

Religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Religion - Essay ExampleWhereas the cycle of life sentence in Buddhism is continuous, the cycle of life in Sikhism continues until one can attain a oneness with God at which point being freed from the constraints of birth, life, and death.Conversely, Hinduism and Jainism also represent a very honest-to-god and a relatively newer religion. Whereas many scholars argue that Hinduism may be the oldest extant religion on planet earth, Jainism only came into being around the year 600 BCE. Hinduism on the other hand can definitively be traced back as far as 1700 BCE. Hinduism retains no specific founder and instead rests its claim to truth found upon the universal acceptance that it seeks to inspire. Alternatively, Jainism seeks to integrate three main principles into the life of its adherents non-violence, non possession, and non-absolutism. Both religions have an array of gods and seeking to understand their respective pantheon requires a great hump of

Unit 3 Discussion 2 Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Unit 3 Discussion 2 - Annotated Bibliography ExampleGray, S. (2012). A Study of Negotiation styles in the midst of assembly line managers from UK and Indian cultural backgrounds. Dissertation paper presented to University of Wolverhampton Business School. West Midlands. https//publications.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/48611/Culture%20Dissertation%20by%20Sasha%20Gray.pdf?sequence=1The above research paper researches aims at developing an in depth understanding of the culture led differences in business negotiation styles in India and UK. The paper begins by defining culture to bring about an understanding of its implication to different areas of life including business. Data analyzed in the paper shows that there is a significant difference in how business lot in India and UK want to be treated and thus it is important to understand these differences for effective negotiation. The paper generally recommends a more conservative form of business negotiation style in India than in the UK.The above book by Kumar and Worm seeks to advice people who intend to venture in emerging economies such as India and China on how to effectively negotiate in these two cultures. The book offers extensive coverage of the culture differences between the West and these two Asian economic giants. The book recommends that business negotiators must appreciate the culture differences in these countries and their home countries in order to succeed in business.The conduct of diplomacy in the twenty-first century has been affected by new forms of challenges that arise from globalization and interdependence among nations. Diplomacy has gotten intensive, volatile, plural-directional and multifaceted. This is as a result of the large numbers of objectives, ways of communication, dialogues subjects and the heightened complexness in terms of factors. Having been written by a Foreign Service expert and leading scholar, this book analyses all these factors

Portfolio of work completed with supporting narrative paper Essay

Portfolio of work completed with supporting narrative paper - Essay ExampleOver the more(prenominal) than 20 years it has been in operation in the industry, it has gained super advantages in toll of the logistics, the production technology and dissemination of information to the market in terms of its gross sales and trade ability (SDITC). The company has a history of production of only quality products and does not reciprocate on quality in the market. This goes flock in hand with promotion of excellence in the market that it operates in. some of the products that the company produces are ceramic tiles, carpet tiles, floor tiles, mosaic marble and many a(prenominal) different types of tile products. With an employee total take off of 100-500 at any one time in its operation, the company has developed to become a high brand in the industry and with the slightly over 20 years of operation, it has developed a very strong manufacturing in technology based production. Its sales a nd market to the market is also a very efficient strategy in that the company has good customer relations which have made it dominate the Chinese market for a good length of time. Therefore, undertaking internship at such a company exposes the subject to very objective experience in the various(prenominal) field of study. With its technology applications, the company introduces the learner to the most current methods of sales and marketing. Description of Work Experiences A typical day week was comprised of a range of activities that were carried periodically either on day to day basis or weekly basis. There are those activities that were based on appointments and had to be referred to on a weekly basis. As a sales colleague at the company, there was a vast range of activities that were relevant to the course which was being done. One of the duties was that of an assistant sales staff work at the company. In this capacity, the work involved constituted helping potential customers to access purchases at the company. Tracking customers was another sales activity that was involved in at the company. This was tracking the orders that the company was to implement. When a company was having a pool of activities involving the use of orders, there was need to get a follow up activity that was used to make up the customers be able to create continuous sales activities in the company. Tracking of the orders is used to make a follow up on the orders made to customers so that there is no single lost market for the company. Communication is very important in marketing. This marketing and sales is based on the fact that one is able to communicate and convince the customers to be able to purchase and be able to purchase once again when another chance like that presents itself. Sound communication was therefore important in tracking the customers in their whereabouts and then initializing the programs that would make a positive execution between the company and the cust omer. Once some of the business activities had been initialized, it was necessary creating a link through the available communication channels at the company to make sure that new sales opportunities are created to new customers. This was created through enough business networking through the internet and all the technological sources available. Development of new customers is a very strong progressive step towards the development of the company sales. In creation of new customers, there is always need to create a in effect(p) and

Price Elasticity of Demand Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Price Elasticity of Demand - Essay ExampleWith changes in market dynamics, burgeoning population, emergence competition in job markets, and rapid expert changes that out phase odd manual jobs, demand for formal education has skyrocketed over the last decade. This happens as people strive to better their competitiveness in securing formal employment. Placing thehigh value on academic certificates as an essential aspect in securing any employment has led to an increased demand for farther education acrosstheboard, which in turn creates high demand for colleges and universities, giving way to the proliferation of many institutions oblation bachelor degrees and lords as well. A l hiting on income levels among employees with different academic qualifications reveals that there are wide disparities in salaries of diploma, thedegree, and masters degree holders. Salaries increase withtheincrease in academic qualifications with masters degree holders earning twice as much as degree hol ders who in turn earn twice what high school diploma holders earn on average. Those with no formal education form the bulk of unemployed population across the country, often playing poorly paid manual jobs in homesteads, municipal councils and mining zones among other similar places. Office jobs are a preserve for the highly qualified inthe formal education, especially those with bachelor degrees and above. counsel jobs are common with masters degree holders and those with many certificates in support courses.... Other factors that affect the picnic of demand include changes in income levels, persistence of price changes, and product demand patterns among others. With changes in market dynamics, burgeoning population, increasing competition in job markets, and rapid technological changes that out phase odd manual jobs, demand for formal education has skyrocketed over the last decade. This happens as people strive to better their competitiveness in securing formal employment. Plac ing high value on academic certificates as an essential aspect in securing any employment has led to an increased demand for further education across board, which in turn creates high demand for colleges and universities, giving way to the proliferation of many institutions offering bachelor degrees and masters as well. A study on income levels among employees with different academic qualifications reveals that there are wide disparities in salaries of diploma, degree and masters degree holders. Salaries increase with increase in academic qualifications with masters degree holders earning twice as much as degree holders who in turn earn twice what high school diploma holders earn on average. Those with no formal education form the bulk of unemployed population across the country, often performing poorly paid manual jobs in homesteads, municipal councils and mining zones among other similar places. Office jobs are a preserve for the highly qualified in formal education, especially th ose with bachelor degrees and above. Management jobs are common with masters degree holders and those with many certificates in support courses relevant to their field of occupation. This state of affairs places high value

Why Did Casey Anthony Kill Her Daughter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Why Did Casey Anthony annihilate Her Daughter - Essay ExampleBy Tuesday, July 12, there were 325,283 tweets about the same root 64% disagreed with the verdict while 35% were neutral (Varma). Outside the courthouse, people cried in frustration there were very few who were not surprised with the results. A majority already made up their mind Casey Anthony killed her daughter, and it was unjust to let her off. Why do people think Casey Anthony is guilty? What were the evidences against her? These are just some(a) of the questions that I hope to address in this paper. I believe that Casey Anthony committed this heinous crime because of the evidences (though circumstantial) show that there is no other person with a motive to kill Caylee. How can a mother kill her own child (or children, in certain cases)? Before Casey Anthony, there was Mary Ann Cotton (Times Magazine), Marybeth tin-plating (Bettman), Diane Downs (Howell) and Susan Smith (S.C. Department of Corrections). Of course, t here were others after her, just now the point is that mothers who kill their own children are not uncommon. In a book entitled Mothers Who Kill Their Children Understanding the Acts of Moms from Susan Smith to the Prom Mom, it was menti mavend that infanticide is as old as human society itselfno culture is immune (Meyer, Cheryl and Oberman, Michelle 1). ... Often, these are committed by mothers whose circumstances prevent them from parenting their children. They are deliberate acts and would require premeditation. There is no single factor that prompts to commit such crimes, and there are no oneness has been able to develop an intervention that will prevent them from happening again. Research shows that contemporary infanticide and filicide are fueled not only by poverty and isolation, but also by demographic shifts in family structure and by a rise in substance abuse (Meyer, Cheryl and Oberman, Michelle 10). A research published by two French psychiatrists showed that infanticid e due to a mental illnes, now known as postpartum psychosis. Modern studies showed that one or two of every one thousand women who give birth are affected by postpartum psychosis. The illness is characterized by a dramatic break with reality, accompanied by a grossly impaired ability to function, usually because of hallucinations or delusions (Meyer, Cheryl and Oberman, Michelle 12). It is typically a brief episode and will disappear a few months after childbirth. Because Caylee Anthony was already two years old at the time of her death, postpartum psychosis is not a valid reason. Moreover, Casey Anthony had to undergo psychological testing as a subroutine procedure and state psychologists showed that she was fit to stand for trial and that she was not suffering from any mental illness. Other patterns found in modern infanticide and filicides are attached with sociocultural and economic influences such as disability, substance abuse, and unresolved trauma combined with the pressur es associated with being the sole

Learning theories Essay Example for Free

acquirement theories EssayPrimary explore consists of the collection of original basal data. It is often undertaken after the seeker has gained virtually insight into the issue by reviewing secondary research or by analyzing previously collected primary winding data. It can be accomplished through various methods, including questionnaires and teleph mavin interviews in securities industry research, or experiments and direct observations in the physical sciences, amongst early(a)s. Secondary ResearchSecondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, w present data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments. The term is widely used in medical research and in market research. The principal methodology in medical secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques, although other methods of synthesis, like real ist reviews and meta-narrative2 reviews, direct been catched in recent years.Such secondary research uses the primary research of others typically in the counterfeit of research publications and reports. In a market research context, secondary research is taken to include the re-use by a second bettery of any data collected by a archetypal party or parties. In archaeology and landscape history, desk research is contrasted with fieldwork. Primary Research Vs Secondary Research One of the major(ip) differences between the both is that primary research is conducted with the help of primary sources available where as secondary research is conducted on the basis of somewhat data collected from some angiotensin converting enzyme who had got it from the sources.Primary research is expensive to conduct since it involves primary sources. But secondary research is not overmuch expensive as primary. Another major difference between the two is that primary research is much much time co nsuming as comp ard to secondary research. As a matter of f come the wills found by the primary research ar unremarkably to bugger off better shade than those from the conduct of the secondary research. Primary research is also usually detailed and elaborated since it is mantic to be both qualitative as well as quantitative.On the other hand data pertaining to secondary research is usually not much detailed and elaborated since it involves indirect uses. Primary research is d peerless with a lot of hard work and dedication. On the hand secondary research is usually presented with a number of data and records. These atomic number 18 usually taken from books, periodicals published by governmental organizations, statistical data, annual reports and case study ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR. organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that separates, companys and structures have on behavior within an organization for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organizations exploitiveness. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication, and management and it complements the academic studies of organizational hypothesis (which is pore on organizational and intra-organizational topics) and human resource studies (which is more applied and business-oriented).It whitethorn also be referred to as organizational studies or organizational science. The field has its roots in industrial and organizational psychology. 1 Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from double viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook divides these five-fold viewpoints into three perspectives modern, typic, and postmodern.Another traditional distinction, present especially inAmerican academia, is between the study of micro organizational deportment which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting and macro strategic management an d organizational theory which studies whole organizations and industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and contingencies that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an gratify in meso scale structures power, culture, and the networks of individuals and i. e. ronit units in organizations and field level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact.Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and moulding these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers behavior, as well as the behavior in which workers atomic number 18 treated (see Taylors scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the 1940s). As such, organizational doings or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at tim es been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful.Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational training, enhancing organizational performance, as well as individual and group performance/satisfaction/commitment. One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, tally to Simms (1994), to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better designualization of organizational life. An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory, and is concerned to help managers and administrators. 1. INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING.The touch on of cultivation has great value for enriching human life in all spheres of life. All activities and behaviors that make personal, social and scotch life peaceful and pleasurable are learned. Learning definitely affects human behaviour in organizations. There is little organizational behaviour that is not each directly or indirectly affected by learning. For example, a workers skill, a managers attitude, a supervisors motivation and a secretarys mode of dress are all learned. Our energy to learn is also primary(prenominal) to organizations preoccupied with controlledperformance. Employees have to know what they are to do, how they are to do it, how well they are expected to do it, and the consequences of achieving good or poor levels of performance.Thus, learning theories have influenced a range of organizational practices concerning 1. The induction of new-made recruits 2. The design and delivery of meditate training 3. The design of payment systems- 4. How supervisors evaluate and provide feedback on employee performance 5. The design of forms of learning organization The concept of the learning organization became popular during the 1990s.The learning organization is a configuration of structures and policies which come along individual learning, with individual and organizational benefits. The organization itself can also be regarded a s an entity which is capable of learning independently of its members. Knowledge has thus become a more important asset for many organizations than materials and products. 1. 1 WHAT IS LEARNING Learning covers virtually all behaviors and is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge, attitudes and values, emotional resolutions (such as happiness and fear), and travel skills (such as operating a computer keyboard or riding a bicycle).We can learn incorrect facts or pick up bad habits in the same way that we learn correct facts and acquire good habits. It refers to a spectrum of changes that occur as a result of ones experience. Learning whitethorn be be as any comparatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioral potential produced by experience. It whitethorn be noted here that some behavioral changes take place due to the use of drugs, alcohol, or fatigue. Such changes are temporary. They are not considered learning. Therefore, changes are due to practice and experience, an d relatively permanent, alone are illustrative of learning.In the definition given above, it is clear that the mould of learning has genuine distinctive characteristics. These are front, learning always involves some kind of experience. These experiences may be derived from inside the body or they may be sensory, arising outside. The task of inferring whether or not learning has taken place may be an obvious one, but observable behaviour may not always reveal learning. It is important to distinguish between two types of learning. Procedural learning or erudite how, concerns your ability to carry out particular skilled actions such as riding a horse.Declarative learning or knowing that, concerns your store of factual knowledge such as an understanding of the history of our use of the horse. Second, the behavioral changes that take place due to learning are relatively permanent. Behaviour can be changed temporarily by many other factors and in ways which we would not like to cal l learning. These other factors include evolution up or maturation (in children), aging (in adults), drugs, alcohol and fatigue. For example, you must have noticed that whenever one takes a sedative or drug or alcohol, ones behaviour changes.Each one of these drugs affect physiological functions leading to certain changes in behaviour. Such changes are temporary in nature and disappear as the effect of drugs wears out. Third, learning cannot be observed directly. We can only observe a persons behaviour and draw the inference from it that learning has taken place. A distinction has to be made between learning and performance. Performance is evaluated by some quantitative and some qualitative measures of output. For example, the number of calls a sales representative makes to customers or the quality of a managers chairing of a committee meeting.But, learning acts as a constraint on the outcome. Normally, we cannot perform any better than we have learned, though there are occasions w hen the right motivational disposition and a supportive environment help to raise the level of performance. Researchers have found that increased motivation may improve our performance up to a point but, beyond this, increased motivation may cause a lowering of the level of performance. 2. PRECONDITIONS FOR LEARNING dickens preconditions for learning will increase the success of those who are to participate in such programs employee readiness and motivation.The condition known as employee readiness refers to both maturational and experiential factors in the employees background. Prospective employees should be screened to determine that they have the background knowledge or the skills necessary for learning what will be presented to them. intuition of individual differences in readiness is as important in an organization as it is in any other learning situation. It is often desirable to group individuals according to their capacity to learn, as determined by scores from tests, or to provide a antithetical or extended type of instruction for those who look at it.The other precondition for learning is that the employee be properly motivated. That is, for optimum learning the employee must recognize the need for acquiring new information or for having new skills and a desire to learn as learning progresses must be maintained. While people at work are motivated by certain common needs, they differ from one another in the relative importance of these needs at any given time. For example, new recruits often have an raging desire for advancement, and have established specific goals for career progression.Objectives that are clearly defined will produce increased motivation in the learning cognitive process when instructional objectives are related to individual needs. 3. SOME PREREQUISITES FOR LEARNING After employees have been placed in the learning situation, their readiness and motivation should be assessed further. In addition, facilitators should understa nd the staple learning issues discussed below. 3. 1 MEANINGFUL MATERIALS In accordance with adult learning theories, the material to be learned should be organized in as meaningful a manner as possible.It should be arranged so that each successive experience builds upon preceding ones so that the employee is able to immix the experiences into a useable pattern of knowledge and skills. The material should have face validity. 3. 2 REINFORCEMENT Anything which strengthens the employees response is called support. It may be in the form of approval from the instructor or facilitator or the feeling of accomplishment that lines the performance or it may simply be confirmation by a packet program that the employees response was correct.It is generally most effective if it occurs immediately after a task has been performed. Behaviour modification, or a technique that operates on the principle that behaviour that is rewarded domineeringly (reinforced) will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas behaviour that is penalized or unrewarded will decrease in frequency, is often used for such purposes 3. 3 TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE Unless what is learned in the development activity is applicable to what is required on the job, the effort will have been of little value.The ultimate effectiveness of learning, therefore, is to be found in the answer to the question To what extent does what is learned transfer to the job? Helpful approaches include ensuring that conditions in the development program conform as closely as possible to those on the job, and coaching employees on the principles for applying to the job the behaviors which they have learned. Furthermore, once formal instruction has been completed, the supervisor must ensure that the work environment supports, reinforces and rewards the employee for applying the new skills or knowledge.3. 4 KNOWLEDGE OF PROGRESS As an employees development progresses, motivation may be maintained and even increased by provi ding knowledge of progress. Progress, as determined by tests and other records, may be plotted on a chart, commonly referred to as a learning curve. Exhibit 8. 9 is an example of a learning curve that is common in the acquisition of many job skills. 4. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING A. Distributed Learning Another factor that determines the effectiveness of learning is the fare of time given to practice in one session.Should training or development be undertaken in five two-hour periods or in 10 one-hour periods? It has been found in most cases that spacing out the activities will result in more rapid learning and more permanent retention. This is the principle of distributed learning. Since the most efficient distribution will vary according to the type and complexity of the task to be learned, it is desirable to make reference to the rapidly growing body of research in this area when an answer is required for a specific learning situation. B. unanimous v.Part Learning Most jobs and task s can be broken down into parts that lend themselves to further analysis. The analysis of the most effective manner for end each part then provides a basis for giving specific instruction. Airline flight attendant jobs, for example, involve a combination of mechanistic (specific tasks that follow a prescribed routine), and organic (tasks that involve decision- do and individualized responses) duties, which are best learnt separately, and then combined to form the whole job responsibility.Thus, the prescribed takeoff and landing announcements, and formal safety procedures, are supplemented with separate learning activities about how to deal with difficult passengers or how to cope with food supply problems. In evaluating whole versus part learning, it is necessary to consider the nature of the task to be learned. If the task can be broken down successfully for part learning, it should probably be taught as a unit. C. Practice and Repetition It is those things we do daily that becom e a part of our repertoire of skills.Employees need frequent opportunities to practice their job tasks in the manner in which they will ultimately be expected to perform them. The individual who is being taught to operate a machine should have an opportunity to practice on it. Similarly, the supervisor who is being taught how to train should have supervised practice in training D. Multiple Sense Learning It has long been acknowledged that the use of multiple senses increases learning. Smith and Delahaye state that about 80 per cent of what a person perceives is obtained visually, 11 per cent by hearing and 9 per cent by the other senses combined.It follows that in order to maximize learning, multiple senses of the employees, particularly sight and hearing, should be engaged. Visual aids are therefore emphasized as being important to the learning and development activities. 5. THEORIES OF LEARNING OR APPROCHES TO LEARNING 1. BEHAVIORLIST APPROACH Behaviorism, as a learning theory, ca n be traced back to Aristotle, whose essay Memory focused on association being made between effects such as lightning and thunder. otherwise philosophers that followed Aristotles thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner later developed the theory in more detail. Watson is the theorist credited with coining the term behaviorism. The school of adult learning theory that adopted these principles has become known as the school of behaviorism, which dictum learning as a straightforward process of response to stimuli. The provision of a reward or reinforcement is believed to strengthen the response and therefore result in changes in behavior the test, according to this school of thought, is as to whether learning had occurred. Spillane (2002) states, the behaviorist perspective, associated with B.F. Skinner, holds that the perspicacity at work cannot be observed, tested, or understood thus, behaviorists are concerned with actions (behavior) as the sites of knowing, teaching, and learning. The hypothesis behind behaviorlist learning theories is that all learning occurs when behavior is influenced and changed by external factors. Behavioralism disregards any notion that there may be an internal component to mans learning. Grippin and Peters (1984) emphasize in regard to an individuals subjugation to external input signal as a determinant of response (i. e. , behavior).Contiguity is understood as the timing of events that is necessary to bring about behavioral change, while reinforcement refers to the probability that repeated positive or negative events will produce an anticipated change in behavior. 1. (A) Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Classical conditioning is a reflexive or free type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Originators and Key Contributors First described by Iva n Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian physiologist, in 1903, and studied in infants by John B.Watson (1878-1958). Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i. e. , making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlovs experiments with follows) and operant conditioning. Pavlovs Dogs In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled psychic reflexes. While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlovs dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with nerve center powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the kernel powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder. Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a ships bell.After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlovs dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i. e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed.He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding. In technical terms, the meat powder is considere d an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dogs salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food. John B. Watson Early Classical Conditioning with Humans John B. Watson further extended Pavlovs work and applied it to human beings.In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) generate fear (UCR). The implications of Watsons experiment suggested that classical conditioning could c ause some phobias in humans. 1.(B) GOMS Model (Card, Moran, advancedell) The GOMS Model is a human information processing model that predicts what skilled users will do in seemingly unpredictable situations. Originators and proponents Card, Moran and Newell in 1983 Bonnie John et al. This model is the general term for a family of human information processing techniques that attempt to model and predict user behavior. Typically used by software package designers, a persons behavior is analyzed in terms of four components Goals something that the person wants to accomplish. Can be high level to low level.Operators basic perceptual, cognitive, or motor actions used to accomplish goals, or actions that the software allows user to make. Methods procedures (sequences) of sub-goals and operators that can accomplish a goal Selection rules personal rules users follow in deciding what method to use in a position 1. (C) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) A behaviorist theory based on the fu ndamental caprice that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors that are punished will eventually end. Originators and Key Contributors B. F. Skinner, built upon Ivan Pavlovs theories of classical conditioning.Operant conditioning can be described as a process that attempts to modify behavior through the use of positive and negative reinforcement. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence. Example 1 Parents rewarding a childs excellent grades with candy or some other prize. Example 2 A schoolteacher awards points to those learners who are the most calm and well-behaved. Students eventually realize that when they voluntarily become quieter and better behaved, that they earn more points.Example 3 A form of reinforcement (such as food) is given to an animal every time the animal (for example, a hungry lion) presses a lever. The term operant conditioning originated by the behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations) Reinforcement comes in two forms positive and negative. dictatorial and negative reinforces Positive reinforces are favorable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior.This may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. Negative reinforces typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behavior to increase. Positive and negative punishment Punishment, in contrast, is when the increase of something undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the behavior that follows. Positive punishment is when unfavorable events or outcomes are given in order to weaken the response that follows.Negative punishment is characterized by when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a undesired behavior occurs. The goal in both of these cases of punishment is for a behavior to decrease. What is the difference between operant conditioning and classical conditioning? In operant conditioning, a voluntary response is then followed by a reinforcing stimulus. In this way, the voluntary response (e. g. studying for an exam) is more likely to be done by the individual. In contrast, classical conditioning is when a stimulus automatically triggers an involuntary response. 1. (D) Socialist Learning Theory (Bandura).Banduras Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Originator Albert Bandura People learn through observing others behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. Most hu man behavior is learned observationally through modeling from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. Necessary conditions for effective modeling 1. Attention various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Ones characteristics (e. g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. 2. Retention remembering what you paid attention to.Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal 3. Reproduction reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. 4. Motivation having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such asA past (i. e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and secondary (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) Bandura believed in reciprocal determinism, that is, the world and a persons behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that ones environment causes ones behavior, Bandura,who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well.Later, Bandura curtly considered personality as an interaction between three components the environment, behavior, and ones psychological processes (ones ability to entertain images in minds and language). 2. CONSTURCTIVIST Constructivism is a synthesis of multiple theories diffused into one form. It is the assimilation of both behaviorialist and cognitive ideals. The constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning it is how people make sense of thei r experience.This is a combination effect of using a persons cognitive abilities and insight to understand their environment. This coincides especially well with current adult learning theory. This concept is easily translated into a self-directed learning style, where the individual has the ability to take in all the information and the environment of a problem and learn. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality.New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Originators and important contributors Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Bruner Constructivism A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acq uiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation.Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and heathenish factors to a situation. Vygotskys theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes Major themes 1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piagets understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development.He states Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child (intra-psychological). 2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO ). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers. 3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).The ZPD is the maintain between a students ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the students ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs.Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills. 3. COGNITIVISM The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the black box of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processor (like a computer). Originators and important contributors Merrill -Component Display Theory (CDT), Reigeluth (Elaboration Theory), Gagne, Briggs, Wager, Bruner (moving toward cognitive constructivism), Schank (scripts), Scandura (structural learning) The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in mid-sixties as the dominant paradigm.Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities opening the black box of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. kind processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learners schemata. A response to behaviorism, people are not programmed ani mals that merely respond to environmental stimuli people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking.Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learners head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as computer information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes. 3. 1 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German Gestalt essence or shape of an entitys complete form) is a theory of mind and brain of the Berlin School the operational principle of gestalt psychology is that the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies.